Regional and extra regional players

Regional and extra regional players CHAPTER IV THE REGIONAL AND THE EXTRA REGIONAL PLAYERS AND THEIR ROLES â€Å"Besides a common religion, Islam, foreign invaders- from Alexander the great to British in the 19th century and the Soviets in the 20th century have united the Afghans†. -Insight Magazine, 09 April 1990. Brief History   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Afghanistan was the only country in the world to launch a strong protest in United Nations against the induction of Pakistan in 1947 and also to lodge a border dispute with Pakistan when it claimed that Durand Line is no more a binding contract as now there is no British Raj present in the region[1]. It also incited a major incursion in Bajur Agency, NWFP in 1961 with hope to have it annexed with itself and led then Prime Minister Dauod Khan to resign from his post, it plunged Afghanistan into a long spiral fall from which it has yet to recover[2]. Top of Form Bottom of Form   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Afghanistan soon proved to be a tough neighbour and sided with India on every matter which could hurt Pakistani interests using an India-Soviet favouring group. In December 1979 Russia invaded the Afghanistan with the pre-text of supporting the pro-Soviet Government. The USA weary of spreading Communism, Saudi Arabia indebted to the American cause coupled with sense of Muslim power and Pakistan worried of increasingly unstable and hostile Afghanistan combined together to exploit the Islamists waged a â€Å"Jihad† against â€Å"Soviet Invaders†. The Pashtun grievances and warlordism gave way to Taliban (literally meaning students) who rose from Kandhar and took 95% of Afghanistan under control by year 2000. Taliban were the friends of Pakistan and safeguarded the Western frontier of Pakistan against not only Indians but even Soviets[3]. Environmental Realities USA have tried to render peace in Afghanistan, but it has become more complicated due to inability of U.S. and NATO forces to understand the environmental realities peculiar to this region and being alien to the culture and traditions of the people. To have peace requires patience and right priorities. Before peace is attempted we need to understand some hard facts[4] :- (a) The continuing influx of Afghan youth trained in Pakistans madrassas now comprises the bulk of Taliban and Al Queda cadres. They are hooked to glorified violence in the name of jihad, and imbued with robotic discipline. They are an army beyond redemption and reasoning. (b) The silent Pashtun majority is terrorized into submission by Taliban and Al Queda. (c) The internecine warfare between the warlords for the past decade has created an unbridgeable divide between the Pashtuns, the Tajiks, the Uzbeks, the Hazaras and the Persian speaking Shiites of Herat. The past mutual ethnic cleansing and betrayals have created visceral hatred among different tribes. (d) The Pashtun dominated Taliban still cling to the idea of Pashtuns ruling over all Afghanistan which the minorities no longer countenance. This has led to a growing friction between ethnic groups, specifically the Pashtuns and their northern Tajik and Uzbek contemporaries. Foreign Relations Before the Soviet invasion, Afghanistan pursued a policy of neutrality and nonalignment in its foreign relations. After the December 1979 invasion, Afghanistans foreign policy mirrored that of the Soviet Union. The fall of the Taliban in October 2001 opened a new chapter in Afghanistans foreign relations. Afghanistan is now an active member of the international community, and has diplomatic relations with countries from around the world. Iran Iran shares a long border with Afghanistan (900kilometres) and has provided shelter to roughly 1.5million Afghans. Afghanistans relations with Iran have fluctuated over the years, with periodic disputes over the water rights of the Helmand River as the main issue of contention[5]. Initially, due to its war with Iraq, Iran was not actively involved in Afghanistan but later the Shia groups who were bitter due to meagre support from Pakistan became close to Iran. Following the Soviet invasion, Iran supported the cause of the Afghan resistance. Iran shares a cultural, linguistic affinity with northern Afghanistans non-Pashtun elements, which suffered the most under Taliban rule. Tehran resents the atrocities regularly visited upon the Shiah Hazara minority by Sunni fanatics in Afghanistan. Its relations with Afghanistan have improved since the fall of the Taliban and has been active in Afghan reconstruction efforts, particularly in the western portion of the country[6]. Presently, Iran h as adopted a more aloof posture and appears to be avoiding overt commitments or opposition to any single Afghan faction. Iranian policy makers have long sought to prevent an alliance between Pakistan and a Sunni-dominated Afghanistan, which would destabilise its entire eastern border. Besides Irans competition with Pakistan for access to the CARs, Irans Afghanistan policy is largely motivated by sectarian ties to Afghanistans Shia minority. A territorial collapse of Pakistan, or domestic instability that threatened to draw in Afghanistan has always tended to be contrary to Irans interests. It has always been perceived that the nationalistic developments of Pashtunistan could spill over to neighbouring Iran, destabilizing its Baluch population, thereby activating the anti-Iran elements in the form of the establishment of a Greater Balochistan. Thus, Iran is against both formation of a Pashtunistan within the Afghan confederation as it would give greater dominance to Sunni Pashtuns and further deteriorate the conditions of Shias, and also of an independent Pashtunistan which would result in similar demands of independent areas within Iran by other sub nationalistic communities. Prolongation of Afghan instability restricts Pakistans capability to export its light industrial goods in Central Asia and the Caucasus, where government subsidised cheap Iranian consumer exports have proliferated. A peaceful Afghanistan would also offer an unwelcome alternative for carrying Caspian basin oil and gas across Afghanistan to South Asia. Iran may also be concerned that an Afghan settlement could provide a larger opening for American and Turkish economic and political influence in the region[7]. CAR The main concern of the three CARs (Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan) bordering Afghanistan was the spill over of militants into their territories. Uzbekistan and Turkey had contacts with General Dostum who had argued that a confederation of autonomous states is the only solution for the chaos in Afghanistan. He warned that the Uzbeks will never again live under Pashtun domination and demanded a separate state, which would be a secular entity and act as a buffer for Central Asia against the spread of Islamic fundamentalism from the Pashtun-dominated area in the south[8]. Afghanistans relations with Tajikistan have been complicated by political upheaval and civil war in Tajikistan, which spurred some 100,000 Tajiks to seek refuge in Afghanistan in late 1992 and early 1993. Also disenchanted by the Talibans harsh treatment of Afghanistans Tajik minority, Tajikistan facilitated assistance to the Northern Alliance. The Karzai government has sought to establish closer ties with its no rthern neighbours in order to capitalize on the potential economic benefits of increased trade. CHINA During the 1970s, the Soviet influence in Kabul, and later their invasion of Afghanistan, has been perceived by Beijing as the purposeful encircling of China by the Soviet Union. Thus, support to Pakistans western border security has been a major feature of Beijings policy. China also has keen interests in Central Asias energy resources and, thus, supports a moderate government at Kabul, because it is believed to be least likely to foment any sort of extremism and disturbance in neighbouring countries. Chinas strategic concerns in the area are mirrored by the security of its lines of communication, which tends to counter Afghanistans rhetoric on Pashtunistan. The ethnic-religious civil wars in Afghanistan have caused rise of Islamic fundamentalism. Just as America has a vision of a modestly stable Afghanistan that will no longer be a haven for extremists, China has a vision of Afghanistan as a secure conduit for roads and energy pipelines that will bring natural resources from the Indian Ocean and elsewhere. So if America defeats Al Qaeda and the irreconcilab le elements of the Taliban, Chinas geopolitical position will be enhanced[9]. This is not a paradox, since China and America have convergence of interests with difference being that whole direction of Americas military and diplomatic effort is toward an exit strategy, whereas the Chinese hope to stay and profit. Saudi Arabia In late seventies, Saudis were facing severe criticism for their close alliance with USA from Arab governments. Saudis used the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan as a springboard to portray their commitment to Muslim causes and brush up their Islamic credentials. In early eighties in close cooperation with America, Saudi Arabia provided a large amount of financial aid for military and humanitarian purposes for Afghanistan. Pakistan had close working relations with all Sunni groups, and never tried to bring Shia groups into the coalition to avoid friction with Saudis. After the cut off of U.S. funds, Saudis became the largest provider of funds for Afghan adventure. The direct role of Saudi Arabia also dramatically increased. Later, especially post 9/11, the warm relations between Taliban and Saudis hit the bottom when Taliban refused to cooperate on Osama bin Ladin issue. Saudis had funded the most conservative individuals and organizations in Afghanistan and Pakistan. Ironically, most o f them turned against the Saudi royal family and had openly criticized the royal family for its close relationship with USA. Russia Russia though major player until 1991 had markedly reduced influence since its disintegration into many independent states. It has given limited military help to the Taliban opposition and deployed troops in Tajikistan near the border of Afghanistan. It is suspicious of increasing US influence in the area traditionally seen by them as their area of influence but not in a position to challenge the USA. Since the fall of the Taliban, the Karzai government has improved relations with Russia, but Afghanistans outstanding foreign debt to Russia still continues to be a source of contention. While the campaign against international terrorism is a key area in which U.S. and Russian interests converge, Moscow is also wary of growing U.S. influence in especially the oil-rich Caspian Sea basin. Russia is providing military hardware to Afghanistan and is aware of the fact that fragile nature of central authority in Afghanistan, torn by chronic infighting among rival ethnic factions, requires U.S. presence as its disengagement would likely spur renewed competition for influence. Russia has became more interested in confining Pashtun dominated Islam to the south and creating a Tadjik and Uzbek entity as a buffer area for the Central Asian states, which also suits Russias near abroad policy. Pakistan Pakistan shares a border of some 2,400 kilometres with Afghanistan and has 10 million Pashtun citizens of its own. The main aim of Pakistans Afghan policy was to have a friendly government in Afghanistan to secure its Western border. Pakistans policy since its inception has been focused on maintaining a situation that could help it avoid controversy over the Durand Line. It has been trying to force a fusion of communities along own side and inciting separation of those on the other side of the line. Islamabad sought to offset Afghan territorial claims by supporting Afghan Islamic parties. Unfortunately, the policies, which it adopted, had exactly the opposite effects. None of the Afghan governments were willing to subordinate its actions to Pakistans wishes. Many Afghans say Pakistan has exacerbated the ethnic component of their conflict by supporting Pashtun Islamic rule. There was a domestic political incentive as well, linked to Islamabads fears about irredentism. â€Å"Pakistan saw in the Taliban, and other fundamentalists, the opportunity to undermine support for Pashtun nationalism†[10]. Pakistan was the first country to recognise Taliban rule in Afghanistan and initiated efforts to persuade the Taliban to accept a broad-based government in Kabul in which all major ethnic tribes would share power. September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks on the USA changed everything and presented Pakistan with a stark choice: either make common cause with Washington in its war against bin Ladens al-Qaeda network based in Taliban-controlled neighbouring Afghanistan, or persist with its pro-Taliban Afghan policy and as a consequence suffer international condemnation of guilt by association. On September 13, 2001 then President General Pervez Musharraf announced that Pakistan would lend its unstinted cooperation to the international coalition against terror[11]. General Pervez Musharraf address to the nation on 19 September is attached as appendix B. More recently, Pakistan has been alarmed by Indias growing political, military, and economic ties to Afghanistan, and sees its establishment of consulates in the Pashtun-majority cities of Jalalabad and Kandahar as provocative. Many Afghans feel Islamabads insistence on Pashtun representation in the post-Taliban political order as the â€Å"crying of crocodile tears†, reflective of an inability to give up strategic designs on Afghanistan[12]. Infact it is widely believed â€Å"When push comes to shove, Pakistan is unlikely to hold back, and will use its long border and deep ethnic links with Pashtuns to alter the balance in its favour†, says a senior Pashtun leader in the present Hamid Karzis government[13]. Even though there are more Pashtuns in Pakistan than in Afghanistan and Pakistani Pakhtuns are better educated and more affluent, Pakistan has always been nervous about its Pashtun population. Does that mean Pakistan and Afghanistan will forever remain condemned to instability and seek security by dependence on outside forces? This may not be true, but to bring stability in the region by uniting the furious Pashtuns divided by the Durand line may be a viable option. A weak non-Pashtun dominated state in Afghanistan has never posed any threat to Pakistan because it has neither had any ideological bearings or religious extra-national ambitions nor any ethnic or sub-nationalist stirrings. On the other hand, whenever there has been a strong Pashtun dominated state in Afghanistan, its government has supported Pashtun separatism (refusal to accept the Durand Line) and pose a threat to the territorial integrity and political solidarity of Pakistan[14]. Pakistan has no effective control over a large swath of territory along its border with Afghanistan primarily dominated by Pashtuns[15]. Dangerous extremist groups that are intent on attacking the U.S. such as al-Qaeda, enjoy safe haven in these border areas. United States â€Å"had we looked deeper, we might have found that the root causes behind the enduring and resilient nature of the Taliban have very little to do with religion, and much to do with an ancient ethnic struggle we [the United States] should consider the prospect of creating a Pashtunistan which reflects the tribal boundaries. This would be a new state, carved from parts of both Afghanistan and Pakistan This new area would be composed largely of ethnic Pashtuns, similar to what we have created in Kurdistan or Bosnia, and it would there ­fore very likely have the consent of the population on the ground†[16] -Major Michael D. Holmes Following the Soviet invasion, the United States supported diplomatic efforts to achieve a Soviet withdrawal and contributed to the refugee program in Pakistan to assist Afghans. After the Soviet withdrawal, CIA let Pak ISI deal with the ugly mess of Afghanistan. The USA initially gave a free hand to Pak to build up the Taliban regime in Afghanistan. The US wanted the Taliban to develop as a counterweight to the Iranian regime and to check USSRs influence in the region. A favourable govt in Kabul would help USA in numerous ways. With the emergence of CARs as independent countries in 1991 and the prospects of availability of huge oil and gas reserves again brought that area to international focus. Meanwhile, the Taliban on capturing Kabul, imposed a strict Islamic code and practiced fundamentalist policies. This led to the USA gradually distancing itself from the Taliban. Post September 11, 2001 events of cosmic proportions have resulted in world focusing on Afghanistan with a renewed interest to deal with Osama Bin Laden, who was responsible for the acts of terror originating from Afghanistan. The Osama Bin Laden Factor. Osama Bin Laden was once one of the star recruiters of the US intelligence agency the CIA. He enrolled thousands of jihad volunteers from the Middle East for a jihad against the Soviet Union in Afghanistan. Ironically after winning their jihad against the USSR, these fundamentalists turned their attention onto the other superpower. Post 9/11 led to U.S. GWOT as the Taliban refused to hand over Osama Bin Laden to the USA. Pashtun Factor. U.S. policymakers recognised early on that Pashtun support was needed to create a broader-based moment to replace the Taliban and provide a degree of stability in the region[17]. This approach appears to have long term goal of stabilising effect as U.S. has demonstrated that America supports the Pashtun desire for a stronger position in relation to the Punjabi-dominated government in Islamabad in the Af-Pak border area of Durand Line. U.S. understands that Pashtuns in FATA treasure their long-standing autonomy and do not like to be ruled by Islamabad. What they want is integration into the Northwest Frontier Province (NWFP) and FATA to form a single unified â€Å"Pashtun† province that enjoys the autonomy envisaged in the inoperative 1973 Pakistan constitution[18]. Al-Qaeda and its â€Å"foreign fighters,† who are mostly Arab, depend on local support from the Taliban for their sanctuary. Unlike Al-Qaeda, with its global terrorist agenda, most of the Tali ban factions focus on local objectives in Afghanistan and FATA; they do not pose a direct threat to the USA. On March 1, 2007, Pakistani ambassador to Washington the Maj. Gen (retired) Mahmud Ali Durrani, said at a seminar at the Pakistan Embassy, â€Å"I hope the Taliban and Pashtun nationalism dont merge. If that happens, weve had it, and were on the verge of that.[19]† India Afghanistan remained the focus of Indian regional policy because of its geo-strategic proximity to Pakistan and the Indian foreign policy was centered on maintaining very cordial relations with it. India in 1950 signed â€Å"Friendship Treaty† to promote bilateral co-operation with Afghanistan to enhance Indian influence. In 1967, the United Pashtunistan Front (UPF) was formed in New Delhi. The then Indian Foreign Minister Swaran Singh told the Indian Parliament that â€Å"we are fully aware of the fundamental freedoms and natural aspirations of the brave Pashtuns which have been consistently denied to them, and their struggle has got our greatest sympathy and we will certainly support the efforts that Khan Abdul Ghafar Khan might undertake in that direction.†[20] After the Soviet invasion in 1979 India doubled up its efforts to further strengthen its relations with Afghanistan. Over the years Indian political elite maintained close contacts with Pasthun leaders on both sides of Durand line. The two countries have always shared a healthy relationship but with the Soviet withdrawal and its disintegration in 1991 and Mujahedeens control of Kabul in April 1992 the relations reached its nadir. During Taliban rule more than 30,000 Afghan refugees moved to India. India is helping Afghanistan rebuild itself and with an ever-increasing belligerence in all fields, including military, intelligence, humanitarian, and economic[21]. India is the largest aid provider to Afghanistan and in the coming few years India likely to project as a regional power is appropriately following a pro-active approach and take the right initiatives on Afghanistan. By fostering greater economic ties with the pro-Indian Northern Alliance dominant Kabul government, New Delhi has dramatically increased its involvement in Afghanistan, and is seeking to marginalize Pakistan[22]. India would prefer a separate Pashtunistan rather than a neo-Taliban ruling over Afghanistan, as this would frustrate Pakistani strategy. India has good relations with Tajikistan and would continue to have good relations with the Tajik section of Afghanistan as well as with a newly formed Pashtunistan. The geo-strategic importance of Afghanistan has a great bearing on India and its approach is primarily Pak focused. Indias economic interests in Afghanistan are secondary to its strategic interests. Apart from the desire to restore Pakistans two-front problem, some of the factors that govern Indian approach to Afghanistan are :- (a) A pro Pak government in Afghanistan is likely to support Pakistan in case of any future Indo-Pak Conflict and would provide them necessary Strategic depth. (b) Pak has been using Taliban militia to wage a proxy war in Kashmir. (c) Afghanistan is the hub of drug trafficking and narco-terrorism[23]. (d) A peaceful and stable Afghanistan will be in the economic interests of India as it will raise the prospects of Indo-Afghanistan trade and also provide greater access to the Central Asian markets and important centers for gas and oil. (e) A fundamentalist Afghanistan is likely to encourage the spread of Islamic fundamentalism in the region which would affect India. Afghanistan constitutes a new battleground for Indo-Pakistani hostility. Credible U.S. media leaks indicate that Pakistani linkages to the car bombing of the Indian Embassy in Kabul on July 7, 2008.India, thus needs to convince Pakistan that Islamabad instead of exporting hatred and destruction, should seek positive parity with India and others in terms of improving the quality of life of its citizens in an inclusive manner. International Perspective There is no formal international position on the Durand Line, simply a de facto one that recognizes it as a real border. No other state has accepted Afghanistans position that it is not such a border. The question arises so why should there be any international pressure on Pakistan and Afghanistan to negotiate about Durand line? The reason is that since September 11, 2001, FATA and the area alongside the Durand line has been viewed as a site of global insecurity that can be controlled only when Pakistan takes responsibility for its territory and extends the structures of the state into the region through expanding opportunities for economic development and education in the FATA region[24]. This is quite difficult because the security situation is currently poor, which makes launching large development projects difficult. Afghanistans refusal to give de jure recognition to the border therefore stands in the way of a comprehensive development program that would have much more impact th an would parallel developments in each country[25]. Having driven the Taliban and Al Qaeda from Afghanistan, the United States and its allies are particularly keen to end FATAs (and to a lesser extent Baluchistans) along the Durand Line to serve as center of Islamic radicalism that promotes international terrorism and seeks to destabilize Afghanistan. The presence of U.S., International Security Assistance Force(ISAF)[26], and Afghan troops gives the border issue some practical urgency as the insurgents they fight retreat back into Pakistan in the belief that they will not be pursued or attacked across an international boundary[27]. From the perspective of the international community the discussions limited to recognition of the Durand Line as a de jure international boundary would not bring stability in the region even if they succeeded as no government in Afghanistan would be willing to pay the political price for accepting the border unless such an agreement were part of a broader package designed to make the country more secure. P akistan also has much to gain as its economy will get a boost[28]. While Afghanistan is concerned about Pakistans support of the Taliban, in times past it has been Pakistan that has been concerned about Afghanistans tacit support of Pashtun separatists[29]. Afghan Nationalism. On a functional level, Afghanistan cannot be subjectively examined under the Western conception of either a state or a nation. The country simply does not operate in any sense of either definition at this time. Both a limited security apparatus and stalled international support have done little to cultivate ancient divisions based on ethnic and religious elements[30].This relatively low level of Afghan nationalism is a result of internal conflict of last two decades with atrocities committed by all sides on ethnic rivals and forced displacements and makes the task of rekindling the flame of nationalism more difficult. Political reconstruction is the essential pre-requisite for the economic reconstruction of the country. Afghanistan is at a major crossroad of its history today. The chain of events, which has led to the present situation, was beyond the control of Afghans. But now, it is Afghans who will have to do soul searching and make some difficult choices. Afghanistans neighbours need to understand and digest the fact that the entire region will be the net winner in case Afghanistan and Pakistan are good friends. The old theories of using Afghanistan as a pawn to open a second front against any third country need to be buried. Any state which has any motivation to incite sectarian or ethnic divisions in any of its neighbours is following a zero gain policy as far as the long term interest of the entire region is concerned. This is the age of globalisation and not of any â€Å"Forward Policies†. Afghan history has proved that great issues of the day cannot be settled by fighting but by consultation and consensus[31]. Many regional and extra regional powers are trying to retain their respective spheres of influence in Afghanistan but no regional power can afford to antagonise Washington by working openly at cross purposes with its military campaign, it has to be supportive to U.S. goals and objectives in the region to meet its asp irations. The international community, including the U.S. government, has long avoided taking a clear position on the border issue, but its ambivalence is beginning to change[32]. Ghaus, Abdul Samad,The fall of Afghanistan,Pergamon-Brasseys Intenational Defense Publishers,London1988,p109. Qureshi, S.M.M. Pakhtunistan: The Frontier Dispute Between Afghanistan and Pakistan . Pacific Affairs, Vol. 39, No. 1/2 Spring Summer, 1966, pp. 99-114. . â€Å"The future of Afghanistan and Pakistan†. WTF: What the fork? . Puri, Rajinder â€Å"Defusing Af-Pak† June 7, 2009 Ghaus,Op.cit.pp148-149. Afghanistan- Conservapedia. . Tomsen, Peter. â€Å"Geopolitics of an Afghan Settlement.† Perceptions, Journal of International Affairs Dec 2000 Feb 2001, Volume 5, Number 4. . Hussain, Hamid, â€Å"Afghanistan not so great games† Robert D. Kaplan. â€Å"Beijings Afghan Gamble†. The Center for a New American Security Khattak, Afrasiab. Interview with ICG, Chairman, Human Rights Commission of Pakistan (HRCP), Peshawar, May 2002. Hussain, Dr. Rifaat â€Å"Pakistans Relations with Afghanistan: Continuity and Change.† The International Crisis Group, â€Å"Afghanistan:The Problem of Pashtun Alienation†.5 August 2003. . ibid. Bhatt, Garurang. â€Å"Coming Chaos in Afghanistan†.23 Aug 2006. Bokhari, Kamran and Burton Fred, â€Å" The Counterinsurgency in Pakistan† Aug 13,2009. . Holmes, Major Michael D. â€Å"Secessionist Jihad: The Talibans Struggle for Pashtunistan,† the Military Intelligence Professional Bulletin, On the Horizon: MI Missions of the Near Future, July-September 2008 Zalmay, Khalilzad and Daniel, Byman, â€Å"Afghanistan: the Consolidation of a Rogue State†, The Washington Quarterly, Vol. 23, No. 1 (Winter 2000), p. 74. Selig S. Harrison, â€Å"Pakistan: The State of the Union† Ibid. Owen, Bennett Jones Nationalism in Pakistan: Eye of the Storm, New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002,p. 139. Bhadrakumar, M.K. â€Å"India and the Central Asian Dawn†. The Hindu. 31 Dec 2009. Zaman, Aly, â€Å"Indias Increased Involvement in Afghanistan and Central Asia: Implications for Pakistan,† Islamabad Policy Research Institute (IPRI) Journal, Vol. 3, N0.2 (Summer 2003), Bhadrakumar, M.K. â€Å"Indian Interests in Regional Security†. The Hindu. 28 Aug 2009. Subramanian Nirupama, â€Å"Gilgit-Baltistan Autonomy wins few Friends†. The Hindu. 30 Nov 2009. Barfield, Thomas, The Durand Line: History, Consequences, and Future. Conference Organized by the American Institute of Afghanistan Studies and the Hollings Center in Istanbul, Turkey November 2007. â€Å"Across the Durrand Line†. Editorial. The Dawn 24 July 2008. . Bhadrakumar, M.K. Loc.cit. Maitra, Ramtanu, â€Å"Central Asia: Dangerous Line in the Sand†.13 March 2003. . The Durand Line: History, Consequences and Future Istanbul, Turkey July 11-13, 2007 Feiser, Jonathan, â€Å"Central Asia The ghost of GreaterAfghanistan† Jul 23, 2003 Amin, Agha. â€Å"Durand Line-Afghanistan-Pakistan-Border Disputes† Journal of Afghanistan Studies Kabul, November 2004. Neumann, Ronald, â€Å"Borderline Insanity: Thinking Big about Afghanistan† The American Interest, November December 2007 issue.

Action Potential Essay

What opens first in response to a threshold stimulus? Voltage Gated (activation gates) Na+ channels open and Na+ diffuses in the cytoplasm What characterizes depolarization, 1st phase of action potential? Membrane changes from a negative value to a positive value What characterizes repolarization, 2nd phase of action potential? Once the membrane depolarizes to a peak value of 30+, it repolarizes to to its negative resting value of -70 What event triggers the generation of an action potential? The membrane potential must depolarize from the resting voltage of -70 mV to a threshold value of -55 mV. ( This is the minimum value required to open enough voltage-gated Na+ channels so that depolarization is irreversible.) What is the first change to occur in response to a threshold stimulus? Voltage-gated Na+ channels change shape, and their activation gates open Resting State All gated Na+ and K+ channels are closed Step 2 Depolarization; Na+ Channels Open During the depolarization phase of the action potential, open Na+ channels allow Na+ ions to diffuse into the cell. This inward movement of positive charge makes the membrane potential more positive (less negative). The depolarization phase is a positive feedback cycle where open Na+ channels cause depolarization, which in turn causes more voltage-gated Na+ channels to open. Step 3 Repolarization; Na+ channels are inactivating and K+ Channels Open Step 4 Hyperpolarization; Some K+ channels remain open and Na+ channels reset How many gates/states do voltage gated Na+ channels have? two gates and three states Closed Na+ at the resting state, no Na+ enters the cell through them Opened Na+ opened by depolariztion, allowing Na+ to enter the cell Inactivated channels automatically blocked by inactivation gates soon after they open How many gates/states do voltage gated K+ channels have? one gate, two states Closed K+ at the resting state, no K+ leaves Opened K+ at depolarization, after delay, allowing K+ to leave Why is an action potential self-generating? depolarizing currents established by the influx of Na+ flow down the axon and trigger an action potential at the next segment The Na+ diffusing into the axon during the first phase of the action potential creates a depolarizing current that brings the next segment, or node, of the axon to threshold. Why does regeneration of the action potential occur in one direction, rather than in two directions? The inactivation gates of voltage-gated Na+ channels close in the node, or segment, that has just fired an action potential At the peak of the depolarization phase of the action potential, the inactivation gates close. Thus, the voltage-gated Na+ channels become absolutely refractory to another depolarizing stimulus. What changes occur to voltage-gated Na+ and K+ channels at the peak of depolarization? Inactivation gates of voltage-gated Na+ channels close, while activation gates of voltage-gated K+ channels open Closing of voltage-gated channels is time dependent. Typically, the inactivation gates of voltage-gated Na+ channels close about a millisecond after the activation gates open. At the same time, the activation gates of voltage-gated K+ channels open. What marks the end of the depolarization phase? As voltage-gated Na+ channels begin to inactivate, the membrane potential stops becoming more positive This marks the end of the depolarization phase of the action potential. Then, as voltage-gated K+ channels open, K+ ions rush out of the neuron, following their electrochemical gradient. This exit of positively-charged ions causes the interior of the cell to become more negative, repolarizing the membrane. The repolarization phase of the action potential, where voltage becomes more negative after the +30mV peak, is caused primarily by __________. The opening of voltage-gated K+ channels allows K+ ions to exit the cell, repolarizing the membrane. In other words, the exit of K+ ions makes the membrane potential more negative. K+ also exits through leakage channels during this phase because leakage channels are always active. However, most of the membrane permeability to K+ during this phase is due to voltage-gated channels. Voltage-gated K+ channels make the action potential more brief than it would otherwise be if only leakage channels were available to repolarize the membrane. During an action potential, hyperpolarization beyond (more negative to) the resting membrane potential is primarily due to __________. The large number of voltage-gated K+ channels opening during the repolarization phase quickly makes the membrane potential more negative as positively-charged K+ ions leave the cell. K+ ions continue to leave through open channels as the membrane potential passes (becomes more negative than) the resting potential. This hyperpolarization phase of the action potential is therefore due to K+ ions diffusing through voltage-gated K+ channels. The membrane potential remains more negative than the resting potential until voltage-gated K+ channels close. This period of hyperpolarization is important in relieving voltage-gated Na+ channels from inactivation, readying them for another action potential. During the hyperpolarization phase of the action potential, when the membrane potential is more negative than the resting membrane potential, what happens to voltage-gated ion channels? Voltage-gated K+ channels are opened by depolarization. This means that as the membrane potential repolarizes and then hyperpolarizes, these K+ channels close. With the closing of voltage-gated K+ channels, the membrane potential returns to the resting membrane potential via leakage channel activity. Resetting voltage-gated Na+ channels to the closed (but not inactivated) state prepares them for the next action potential. During the hyperpolarization phase of the action potential, voltage eventually returns to the resting membrane potential. What processes are primarily responsible for this return to the resting membrane potential? Voltage-gated K+ channels close. K+ and Na+ diffuse through leakage channels.

The Issue Of Gun Control Laws Essay - 1578 Words

GUN CONTROL LAWS There is a need in this country for gun control laws as well as benefits for the citizenry who own them. With the current state of our society these days, owning a gun has become a necessity for some, if not all, household. I, myself, conform for every household having a gun. Although we have our police force always ready to rescue anyone in distress, every second matters when we are facing face to face with danger. Granted that the authorities are already underway, having something on hand to defend one’s self is the most important thing for the time being. Though I believe that everybody needs to be educated on how to protect our own safety in a close contact combat, it is as important as being knowledgeable in handling and using guns for short-range/long-range threats. Ideally, having knowledge of both is of greater advantage. However, if one can’t have both, owning a gun can always come in handy. But, should we regulate or ban the use of weapons? My standpoint is No . With this in mind, it is necessary to be informed of the responsibilities, advantages and disadvantages of owning a gun. Additionally, we will tackle the National Firearms Act of 1934, which addresses taxing the firearms that only covers two types of handguns. Even more, the Gun Control Act of 1968, the legislation that was passed to regulate interstate and foreign commerce in firearms which includes the importation, prohibited persons and licensing provisions. As well as the Brady Law,Show MoreRelatedThe Issue Of Gun Control Laws861 Words   |  4 Pagesgovernment has the responsibility to protect people. Currently, the gun violence has threatened the American public safety, people used gun to kill many people for their own interests. The United States constitution believes Americans have their own gun to protect themselves. Some people said guns will protect their life easily. Whether, America should have strict gun control laws or not bring about the debate in society. Gun issue is not only a big problem from United States, it’s also a big problemRead MoreThe Issue Of Gun Control Laws1407 Words   |  6 Pagesits path. There is no exact definition of mass shootings, but most sources believe it is when four or more people are shot in one location. Citizens in America are easily able to obtain a gun and the growing issue is whether this should change and stronger laws in place. Although citizens believe gun control laws take away second amendment and right to protect themselves, mass shootings are increasing yearly and action needs to happen to prevent the next attack. America’s at a high withRead MoreThe Issue Of Gun Control Laws1701 Words   |  7 PagesA gun has the capacity to convert a conflict into a serious crime. The power of a gun is vast. But it the power of the gun is appreciated in right hands. The effects of a gun can be cherished when it is used by right hands and with the right intention. The effects of the gun are condemned when it reaches in wrong hands. A gun can protect as well as end someone’s life. When it ends the life of a criminal, it is a sign of bravery but when it takes the lives of innocent people it is condemned. ThereforeRead MoreThe Issue Of Gun Control Laws1410 Words   |  6 Pagesto have and remain fight prepared. Regardless, this has remained a basic issue since decades. There have been a lot of senseless murders and killings around the United States. With better gun control laws in effect these killings and murders would not have been possible. The government, the states, and the peopl e all need to work together to come to a solution to prevent things like this in the future. Better gun control laws would mean less killings and murders happening around the world. Think ofRead MoreThe Issue Of Gun Control Laws1536 Words   |  7 Pagesright to bear arms. This Amendment, when written had no limitations or constraints, however there seems to be more laws than ever trying to govern or ban the carrying and even ownership of firearms as a whole. Many say that the reasons for the attempt of gun control laws are due to the safety of the public nevertheless if you look at the statistics themselves it shows that armed law bidding citizens stop more violent crime involving and not involving firearms if armed than the police department,Read MoreThe Issue Of Gun Control Laws852 Words   |  4 PagesIn about every nation, gun control has always been an issue of controversy. Gun control laws are quite different from country to country, each possessing different requirements, specifications, and ordinances, so on and so on. What will be examined are the specified gun control laws in three international countries, ranging from Canada, Australia, and Japan, as well as a comparison and contrast of the the similarities and unique differences toward American gun control laws and those in other countriesRead MoreThe Issue Of Gun Control Laws2761 Words   |  12 PagesOne of the most debated topics in the U.S. is about gun control laws. Constant dispute between citizens and the government shows that there are two sides; for or against control. Arguments, whether oral or written, point out various ways how it can either help or hurt our society here in the United States of America. Most people however agree by reinforcing these laws violates the citizen’s 2nd Amendment rights which states, â€Å"A well-regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free StateRead MoreEssay about The Issue of Stricter Gun Control Laws1861 Words   |  8 PagesT he issue of stricter gun control laws is an on-going battle that continues to be debated at both the local and federal levels. Regardless of one’s viewpoint on the matter, this subject makes for a very passionate debate on both sides. At question is whether or not stricter laws and regulations help reduce the number of gun-related crimes. Obviously, the answers vary greatly depending on the strongly held viewpoint of the responders. Often, horrible gun-related crimes are committed by peopleRead Moregun control research essay1222 Words   |  5 Pagesarticle that studied gun control. â€Å"Stricter state gun laws associated with fewer gun deaths, study finds.† The article discussed gun control laws in states with stricter laws tend to have lower rates of gun related homicides, and a suicide (ProCon para. 1) Gun control in the United States is becoming a wide spread issue and is becoming a problem everywhere. Although I am living in a city with uprising crime that has been skyrocketing over the years, I wasn’t aware of this being an issue all over the UnitedRead MoreGun Control1724 Words   |  7 PagesEnglish 1302 5th march 2013 Sides of Crime Control Gun control laws have been surrounded by controversy since The Bill of Rights, including the Second amendment was passed in the congress. A well-regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed, the founders wrote. Until recently there was considerable argument over just what the founders intended by their words. Did they mean to provide only for armed

The Series Of The Family Produced By Norman Milton

The series All in the Family produced by Norman Milton Lear from 1971-1979 is one of the most controversial and groundbreaking television shows ever created. The successful sitcom has covered many touchy subjects involving race, ethnicity, homosexuality, rape, and religious beliefs. Towards the end of the third season, episode 20 which was called â€Å"Archie is Branded†, aired on February 24th 1973 touched many subjects that were heavily debated on the fact of whether or not it was appropriate to air on live television. The lead male characters Mike and Archie get in a heated argument about the Vietnam War. This sensitive subject caused and led several additional current historical issues and events. The original hit show, All in the Family featuring Carroll O’Connor (Archie), Jean Stapleton (Edith), Rob Reiner (Michael) and Sally Struthers, (Gloria) is an American sitcom that challenges numerous controversial topics during its era. This specific episode â€Å"Archie’s Branded† aired on February 24th 1973 and was about the bunker family being â€Å"branded† with a swastika painted on their front door. When going to retrieve the news paper, opening the door, Archie, realizes someone has painted a swastika on his door with a note that said, â€Å"This DeMark 2 swastika was just the beginning, we’ll be back†. After receiving such a serious threat from this anonymous person/persons, Archie and the others decided to call the police. With several minutes passing, the doorbell rings. Thinking itShow MoreRelatedEssay Dualism in Alfred Hitchcock’s Psycho1454 Words   |  6 Pagesjust one example of many that Hitchcock has placed in this film. Marion Crane is the first main character that is focused upon for the first half of Psycho. â€Å"All that Marion Wants, after all, are the humble treasures of love, marriage, home, and family.† (Brill 227) [up and down] This is the reason why Marion steals the money in the first place. 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